SLAVE TRAFFIC

AT ELMINA

"The earliest reference to slaves being brought to Elmina is by Eustache de la Fosse in 1479, who describes the arrival of caravels from the 'River of Slaves.' These ships carried 'a good 200 [slaves] each,' most of whom were sold at the 'Mine of Gold.' The 'River of Slaves' likely refers to the Niger Delta area of modern Nigeria, some 500 miles farther east. The Portuguese sometimes obtained slaves from lands to the west in modern Liberia and from Arguim on the Mauritanian cost. Beginning early in the sixteenth century, Sao Tome and Principe were used as distribution points for slaves obtained on the Slave Coast, and as many as 673 slaves per year were transported to Elmina. Although the slaves may have originated at Ouidah or Sao Tome, these areas were collection points, and the captive Africans likely included many different ethnolinguistic groups. Some of these people were taken to the interior, but others stayed at Elmina. As many as 20 or 30 slaves were kept at Sao Jorge to assist with the maintenance of the garrison. Others may have been retained by the merchants in the town, but aside from their service as porters, their numbers and occupations within the Elmina settlement are uncertain. The importation of slaves dropped after 1535, perhaps as a result of both the disruption of trade routes to the interior and the expansion of the trade in slaves to Portugal and the Americas. The number of slaves in Elmina increased during the Dutch period. Letters from the Dutch director general on the Gold Coast frequently referred to the need to bring more slaves from Ouidah on the coast of Benin. Harvey Feinberg estimates that the West India Company maintained approximately 600 slaves on the Gold Coast during the eighteenth century, about half of whom were at Elmina. In 1812, Henry Meredith placed the number of Dutch West India Company slaves in the town at about 900, perhaps 4-8 percent of the total population.....The role of slaves at Elmina and the institution of slavery in Akan society provide an important contrast to plantation systems in the Americas. Unlike the latter, slaves in coastal Ghana exercised a relative degree of freedom. They were important to the functioning of the European outposts, and they made up an important component of the Elmina settlement. In Akan society, slaves captured in warfare or purchased became part of the matrilineage (abusua) of their owners, and thus became part of a family, linked by marriage ties and kin relations....During the Dutch the trainslaven, or 'company slaves,' also seem to have had some degree of freedom.....During hostilities between the Dutch and Elmina in 1739, the trainslaven caught in the town were either put to death or sold." (Christopher DeCorse, An Archaeology of Elmina, 2001, p.34-35)

"American captains regarded Elmina as one of the principal places for trade on the West African coast and at times gave up calls at other ports in order to reach Elmina before other ships....For example, ships calling at Elmina in 1853 in cluded 1 Austrian, 6 Dutch, 6 Hambugian, 7 Portuguese, 8 Sardinian, 9 French, 15 American, and 22 English." (DeCorse, Christopher R., An Archaelogy of Elmina, 2001, p. 148)

The Gold Coast: White Man's Grave

"The main factor would accumulate slaves and other African goods to await the incoming ships. Life in the forts was generally very difficult. Quite apart from discomfort and disease and the inevitable deaths commercial life on the coast was a permanent worry; pressured by the London company to provide certain numbers and sorts of slaves, yet subject to the uncomfortable eddies of interal African pressures. British agents resident in the forts and castles had an unenviable existence....Hundreds of white men worked on the coast - more than 300 were employed by the Royal African Company alone at its peak....Over the years a varitable army of white men was devoured by the slave-trading machine on the coast (and on the Atlantic) but their numbers pale when compared to the numbers of Africans who died in the slave trade." (James Walvin, Black Ivory, Blackwell Publishers Ltd., Oxford, 1992, 2001, p.29)

"Forts needed frequent and great repairs. Humidity, torrential rains, fierce heat, corroded the buildings. In those steamy quarters merchants, soldiers and tradesmen lived out their unpleasant and often all too brief existence in Africa. Monotonous procession of corpses to the local burying ground." (Walvin, James, Black Ivory: a history of British slavery. London: HarperCollins, 1992) http://www.ama.africatoday.com/cape_coast.htm

Tribal Wars and Village Raids

Notes from journey to Gold Coast in a slave coffle as described by Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior of Africa, 1799:

"Slaves very inquisitive - asked Park if his countrymen were cannibals. They were very desirous to know what became of the slaves after they had crossed the salt water. Park told them that they were employed in cultivating the land but they would not believe him. One put his hand upon the ground and asked 'have you really got such a ground as this to sit your feet upon?' Deeply rooted belief that whites purchase Negroes for purpose of devouring them. Contemplate a journey to the coast with great terror. So they must be kept constantly in irons and closely watched. Right leg of one and left of another put in fetters. By supporting the fetters with a string, they can walk, but very slowly. Every four slaves are likewise fastened together by their necks with a strong rope of twisted thongs. In the night an additional pair of fetters is put on their hands and sometimes a light chain passed around their necks.

Such of them as evince marks of discontent are secured thus. A thick billet of wood is cut about 3 ft. long, a smooth notch made on one side, the ankle of the slave is bolted to the smooth part by means of a strong iron staple, one prong of which passes on either side of the leg. All these fetters and bolts are made of native iron.

Otherwise treatment of slaves was not harsh or cruel. Let out in their fetters every morning, sit in shade of tamarind tree, encouraged to play games of hazard, sing songs to keep up their spirits. Some were brave, some very dejected. Sit all day in a sort of sullen melancholy with eyes fixed upon the ground. Evening: examine irons, put on hand fetters; sent into two huts, guarded by owner's domestic slaves.

One got hold of a small knife, opened rings of his fetters, cut the rope, escaped, refusing to wait to help his companions.

As many of the slaves had remained for years in irons, sudden exertion of walking quickly with heavy loads upon their heads, occasioned spasmodic contractions of their legs. Cut ropes, allow them to walk more slowly.

Prayers: preserve us from robbers and all bad people, provisions should never fail us, our bodies should not become fatigued. Two slaves, a woman and a girl, were so much fatigued that they could not keep up: they were severely whipped and dragged along, when they both started vomitting, by which it was discovered that they had eaten clay. Allowed to lie down. Guards remained with them. Arrived in next village at midnight. Decided to send them back.

Procession: in front 5 or 6 singing men, other free people, slaves fastened in the usual way by a rope round their necks, four to a rope and a man with a spear between each four; then domestic slaves, then free women, wives, etc. At entrance to a village singers extolled known hospitality to strangers. On arrival singers introduced the party. Chief gave them a small present. All accommodated for the night by some one or other in the village.

In the forest kindled fires for the night, made supper (kouskous with boiling water) Slaves put in irons. Disturbed thru the night by howling of wild beasts; troubled by small brown ants. One female slave very sulky next morning and refused gruel offered to her. Later in the day she began to lag behind and complain of pains in her legs. Load taken from her and given to another slave. She was sent to the front.

Resting by a small river, hive of bees discovered in a hollow tree - swarm of bees attacked them - all ran - the woman found to be missing. Set grass on fire to chase bees away. Found the woman much stung - she had tried to lie in the water. Stings removed, washed with water, rubbed with leaves. Woman refused to proceed. Begged. Threatened. Whipped. Walked for several hours. Tried to run away. Weak. Fell down in the grass. Whipped. Too weak. Made a littler of bamboo canes carried on their heads by two slaves. Slaves snapped their fingers - signs of desperation. All put in irons. In the morning all greatly recovered. Injured woman all swollen could not walk or stand. General cry, 'Cut her throat, cut her throat.' Not killed but just abandoned to be devoured by wild beasts.

We met a coffle of 26 people with 7 loaded asses returning from the Gambia. Most of the men were armed with muskets and had broad belts of scarlet cloth over their shoulders and European hats upon their heads.

One of the slaves unable to proceed any further. His master, a singing man, proposed to exchange him for a young girl, belonging to one of the towns people. The poor girl was ignorant of her fate until the bundles were all tied up in the morning, the coffle ready to depart when coming with some other young women to see the coffle set out, her master took her by the hand and delivered her to the singing man. Never was a face of serenity more suddenly changed into one of the deepest distress: the terror she manifested on having the load put upon her head and the rope fastened round her neck and the sorrow with which she bad adieu to her companions, were truly affecting."http://www.ama.africatoday.com/journey_to_coast.htm

The main source of slaves for African traders were people captured as prisoners of war or kidnapped and sold into slavery. Prior to the transatlantic trade, POWs were ransomed back to their home kingdom or integrated into the society where they were captured - in which case they performed slave labor for a fixed time until granted freedom. Such slaves were permitted to ascend the social structure of the community. "Captives were chained together and marched to the coast where they were locked up in wooden cages to await the arrival of the next European trading ship." (Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1989, 1995, p.175-176)

"So voracious was the appetite for slaves that slavery was transformed and extended far into the African hinterland. Conflicts and even wars were created simply to provide slaves." (James Walvin, Black Ivory, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford, 1992, 2001, p.24)

Early into the slave trade, at least 60 percent of slaves were prisoners of war. That amount increased to 70 percent during the 17th century. The Dahomey and Ashanti kingdoms supplied a large share of prisoners of war for sale. "By the peak years of the 18th century, Europeans imported between 283,000 and 394,000 guns each year into West Africa....But the value of these weapons to Africans often transcended their monetary cost. Sought after for the power - and terror - they could create, European guns became an important lubricant of the African slave system, valuable in themselves but much more important in helping to catch more slaves....slave traders sold guns to Africans to increase their own supplies of slaves." (ibid, p.28)

Slave barracoons as described by John Barbot, 1732:

"As the slaves come down to Fida from the inland country, they are put into a booth, or prison, built for that purpose, near the beach, all of them together; and when the Europeans are to receive them, every part of every one of them, to the smallest member, men and women being all stark naked. Such as are allowed good and sound, are set on one side, and the others by themselves; which slaves so rejected are there called Mackrons, being above thirty five years of age, or defective in their limbs, eyes or teeth; or grown grey, or that have the venereal disease, or any other imperfection. These being set aside, each of the others, which have passed as good, is marked on the breast, with a red- hot iron, imprinting the mark of the French, English, or Dutch companies, that so each nation may distinguish their own, and to prevent their being chang'd by the natives for worse, as they are apt enough to do. In this particular, care is taken that the women, as tenderest, be not burnt too hard.

The branded slaves, after this, are returned to their former booth, where the factor is to subsist them at his own charge, which amounts to about two- pence a day for each of them, with bread and water, which is all their allowance. There they continue sometimes ten or fifteen days, till the sea is still enough to send them aboard; for very often it continues too boisterous for so long a time, unless in January, February and March, which is commonly the calmest season: and when it is so, the slaves are carried off by parcels, in bar- canoes, and put aboard the ships in the road. Before they enter the canoes, or come out of the booth, their former Black masters strip them of every rag they have, without distinction of men or women; to supply which, in orderly ships, each of them as they come aboard is allowed a piece of canvas, to wrap around their waist, which is very acceptable to those poor wretches...."

Kidnapping as described by Olaudah Equiano, 1789:

"One day, as I was watching at the top of a tree in our yard, I saw one of those people come into the yard of our next neighbour but one, to kidnap, there being many stout young people in it. Immediately, on this, I gave the alarm of the rogue, and he was surrounded by the stoutest of them, who entangled him with cords, so that he could not escape till some of the grown people came and secured him. But alas! ere long, it was my fate to be thus attacked, and to be carried off, when none of the grown people were nigh. One day, when all our people were gone out to their works as usual, and only I and my dear sister were left to mind the house, two men and a woman got over our walls, and in a moment seized us both; and, without giving us time to cry out, or make resistance, they stopped our mouths, and ran off with us into the nearest wood. Here they tied our hands, and continued to carry us as far as they could, till night came on, when we reached a small house, where the robbers halted for refreshment, and spent the night. We were then unbound; but were unable to take any food; and, being quite overpowered by fatigue and grief, our only relief was some sleep, which allayed our misfortune for a short time."

Capture as described by Venture Smith, 1798:

"The invaders then pinioned the prisoners of all ages and sexes indiscriminately, took their flocks and all their effects, and moved on their way towards the sea. On the march the prisoners were treated with clemency, on account of their being submissive and humble. Having come to the next tribe, the enemy laid siege and immediately took men, women, children, flocks, and all their valuable effects. They then went on to the next district which was contiguous to the sea, called in Africa, Anamaboo. The enemies provisions were then almost spent, as well as their strength. The inhabitants knowing what conduct they had pursued, and what were their present intentions, improve the favorable opportunity, attacked them, and took enemy, prisoners, flocks and all their effects. I was then taken a second time. All of us were then put into the castle [a European slave trading post], and kept for market."

The female dungeon held from 150 to 200 women. They were fed two times a day, went to the bathroom in containers in the room and had no baths. Women often had to stay here for three months at a time (the time it took to do the triangular trade route). The only time they were permitted out of the dungeon was when the Governor selected slaves for sex.

Male slave dungeon.

Gate of No Return

Prison for condemned slaves. They never came out of this cell alive. With no food or water it was assumed those locked behind the door of death would only last seven days. This is how pirates and rebellious slaves were rewarded.

The Governor's balcony where he stood to select female slaves for his sexual pleasure. Any female slave who resisted was chained to a cannonball in the court yard and left to starve as an example for the other slaves.

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Inside Elmina

"To describe the surviving slave castles as splendid may seem perverse, admiring architectural grace while overlooking the social purpose....They were trading posts, with a host of offices, storage rooms and negotiating forums....In some forts, light and air filtered into the slaves' prisons from grilles set in the overhead walkways. The enslaved Africans could see free people walking above them, almost precisely as they were to see the crews of the slave ships pacing the decks above them....Above all else the slave castles came to epitomize the value and apparent permanence of the slave trade....Africans arrived in coffles, i.e., tied 'by the neck with leather thongs, at about a yard distance from each other, thirty or forty in a string.'" (James Walvin, Black Ivory, Blackwell Publishers Ltd., Oxford, 1992, 2001, p.30-32)

On a wall of the castle a plaque reads: "In everlasting memory of the anguish of our ancestors. May the thousands who died rest in peace. May those who return find their roots. May humanity never again perpetrate such injustice against humanity. We, the living, vow to uphold this."

"The Female Slaves’ Yard

No fewer than four hundred women slaves were kept in each of the dungeons at a time, and no one can estimate how horrible life in the dungeons was. History has it that those women were kept in the dungeons for three months before the ship came in for them. During this period, they were not allowed to come out until the time the governor wanted to select one for sex. Two receptacles or containers were placed at the various ends where they were expected to relieve themselves into in the same dungeon where they were sleeping.

It is also believed that during their second month’s stay in the dungeons, the women became so weak that they could not even move from the middle of the dungeons to where the containers were. So they were doing everything on the floor and also sleeping in it. That explains why many of them died.

Dungeons of the Female Slaves

The dungeons were poorly ventilated and even in the biggest female slave dungeons, the hole that was created for ventilation led to the magazine where ammunition and other explosives were kept. So whenever there was any leakage in the magazine, the chemicals came straight to the dungeons, contaminated the air and killed most of them.

With the poor diet, faeces and urine on the floor, chemicals that came from the magazine, and at the same time, human beings packed like sardines, the death toll rose unimaginably.

The same conditions prevailed in the male dungeons except that the male slaves were chained while in the dungeons, and were also branded with hot metals to make for easy identification, while the female slaves were given tags like beasts of burden or like some quarry to be run down by some ravenous beast. It is also believed that most of the female slaves died instantly from the shock of branding."

http://www.mtrustonline.com/when04092002.htm

Notwithstanding all these cruel and inhuman treatments, it is believed that one out of three slaves survived to the outside world, and roughly twenty million African men and women were taken all along the coast. So, if calculations are correct, it means sixty million Africans were captured as slaves, whereas forty million died in the movement from the hinterlands to the castles, and from the castles to the new world.

Governor's Quarters

"The Governor of Elmina lived in considerable grandeur, as a conversation-piece of Admiral de Ruyter in his tower bedroom, painted by de Witt in 1665, bears witness. This spacious room, one of two identical size and shape, has five walls with windows facing outwards, and a long sixth wall on the Castle side. The Admiral, elaborately dressed and wearing a circular black hat with a moderately high crown and two white ostrich feathers, stands slightly to the left of the picture, while a plumed and turbaned figure symbolizing Africa kneels before him, holding a picture of one of the English forts de Ruyter had captured. The whole floor is raised as a dais with two steps leading up to it. This floor is of polished wood, the walls are hung with stamped Spanish leather. Beneath an open lattice window is a long table covered with a turkey carpet, and bearing a terrestrial globe and writing materials. At the back is a sumptuous canopied bed, with an embroidered coverlet and curtains of some thin material. There are two broad, armless leather chairs studded with brass nails. A door to the right is open, revealing a soberly dressed man leaning over a staircase rail. Except for the African figure, it might be the interior of any grad Dutch house of the period of de Hooch or Terborch." (James Pope-Hennessy, Sins of the Fathers, p.73)